Was Romanian truly a Romance language in the 16th century?

Is the Romanian language an artificial Romance idiom created in the 19th century to replace the old language of the inhabitants north of the Danube? Or at least that's what the adherents of a pseudoscientific theory claim, asserting that the Romanian language and the ethnonym "Romanian" were invented in the 1800s to falsify the so-called true origin of the Vlachs. And the supreme proof for this hilariously absurd hypothesis is the erroneous information that documents in the so-called Vlach language were supposedly written only in Cyrillic letters until the 19th century.

The authors of this pseudoscientific theory omit or do not know the fact that the first Romanian texts with Latin letters (Photo 1) and the first in Cyrillic script (Photo 12) date from the same era, the 16th century, and are relatively easy to understand for modern Romanian speakers.¹

Photo 1. The Lord's Prayer in Romanian with Latin alphabet (1594)

 

 

 

Photo 2. Our Father in the bilingual Sibiu Gospel (1551-1553)

The simultaneous existence of a significant number of Romanian texts, written in both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets, allows us to analyze the differences between the Romanian language from four to five centuries ago and that of our times, and the most readily available specimen for this comparison is precisely the Our Father prayer, a fundamental text in European culture and among the first learned in childhood.

By comparing the versions of the Our Father prayer from the 16th century and the modern variant, we can verify whether today's Romanian language is truly an artificial creation compared to the Romanian speech from almost five centuries ago.

However, first, in order to better understand the evolution of the Romanian language, it is necessary to discuss (relatively) briefly the phenomenon of the emergence and spread of writing in the vernacular language, that is, the idiom spoken by the people, at the European level and particularly among Romanians.

I. Why did Romanians initially adopted the Cyrillic alphabet and not the Latin one?

Short answer: for the same reason that Slavic peoples such as the Poles, Czechs or Croats adopted the Latin alphabet and not the Cyrillic one.

Long answer: In medieval Europe, the vernacular language was distinct from the language used in secular administration, literature and religious life. Thus, in the Catholic world, medieval Latin and the Latin alphabet were imposed - with the exception of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania where Ruthenian was used², while in the Orthodox world, Byzantine Greek and Church Slavonic with the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets respectively were imposed.

An emblematic example of this dynamic is post-Norman England (1066). William the Conqueror's victory caused an almost total decline of English as an official language, which was replaced in official documents by Latin, and in literature, law, education and administration by French. Practically, English almost completely disappeared as a written language for about two centuries, remaining only the idiom of the lower classes. The everyday language of English monarchs was French until the time of King Henry IV (1399-1413).³

Gradually, as a result of cultural and social transformations in the last centuries of the medieval era, vernacular languages began to gain a more important role, especially in literature and, gradually, in administration and education. The process was not uniform, vernacular languages were imposed at different historical moments as official languages of their respective states.

For example, in our case, from the 17th century, the number of manuscripts written in Romanian comes to exceed that of documents in Slavonic, which denotes the fact that Romanian is making more and more room for itself, at an official level, in community life, but the Slavonic tradition was preserved in the form of the Cyrillic alphabet, which continued to be used in Wallachia and Moldova until the 19th century.

We should underline that does not mean that Romanian did not exist as language before the earliest precisely datable document, especially considering that it is a Romance language in the middle of Slavic languages. As such, it is laughable to believe that in the heyday of the Middle Ages a people would have been able to shift from a Slavic to an supposedly artificial Romance language. 

II. Since when has Romanian been written?

Although no document, inscription, or book written in Romanian from before the 16th century has been preserved, we still have some clear evidence that Romanian existed for several centuries as a vernacular language, transmitted orally.

As the scholar Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu showed, "the only authentic means of studying the Romanian language in its forms up to the middle of the 16th century are the Slavic charters, in which our ancestors always sneaked in a Romanian word, especially reproducing personal or local proper names".⁴ Researchers who analyzed documents from the 14th-15th centuries, written in Slavonic and Latin in the chancelleries of Wallachia, Moldova and Transylvania, discovered interspersed in the texts a multitude of Romanian words or terms with specifically Romanian endings - place names (Cărarea, Cetate, Copăcel, Direptate, Fîntînea, Runcul, Sărata etc.), personal names or nicknames (Albu, Badea, Barbul, Bărbos, Bourelul, Crețul, Lupu, Roșiul, Tătarul, Ușurel etc.), names of crafts and dignities (aurar, dijmar, județ, hotarnic, portarul, pușcarul, spătarul etc.).⁵

From the same period we also have the first external testimonies about the language of those called Vlachs.

The oldest attestation of the Vlach language dates from 1364, when a document from Banat records the name of a toponym in both Hungarian and Romanian (Olachos) languages;⁶ another mention dates from 1396, when the bishop of Transylvania asks the people of Sibiu to send an envoy knowledgeable in the Vlach language,⁷ and in 1411, the name of a mountain is given in both Hungarian and Vlach language.⁸ Around 1420, the Serbian chronicler Constantine Kostențchi mentions a spelling rule specific to the Vlach language,⁹ and in 1485, it is mentioned that a copy of the vassalage treaty between Stephen the Great and the King of Poland was translated from Vlach language into Latin.¹⁰

This brief information confirms that those called Vlachs had their own speech, different from Church Slavonic, Hungarian, Middle Bulgarian, Serbian, Ruthenian.

But how did the Vlach language sound?

To answer this question, we must turn to the earliest acoustic perceptions of the Vlach language, which come from Western travelers, scholars and diplomats who came into contact with the Vlachs beginning in the 15th century.

One by one, they note that the Vlach language has Latin roots, but is rustic, very changed and corrupted.

In the context where the Western world was trying to counter Ottoman expansion in Europe, humanist scholars discover the affinity between the Vlach language and Romance idioms. One of the first known mentions on this topic belongs to the Florentine Poggio Bracciolini, who writes in 1451 about the Vlachs that they are "an abandoned colony of Trajan among the Sarmatians of the North, who even now, in the midst of so many barbarians, preserve many Latin words, which Italians who went there were able to record in writing".¹¹

After Bracciolini follows a long series of personalities from all over Europe who provide new and new information about the Latinity of the Vlach language and their Roman origin. Among them we mention Flavio Biondi, Enea Silvio Piccolomini, Nicholas of Modrussa, Nicolaus Olahus, Georg Reicherstorffer, Anton Verancsics, Johannes Lebel, Gaspar Helth (Heltai), Wolfgang Kowachoczy, Stanisław Orzechowski (Orichovius), Pierre Lescalopier and many others.¹²

Particularly valuable information about the native name of the Vlach language is offered to us in 1532 by the Paduan Francesco della Valle who reports that he was asked by locals in Wallachia if he knew their language. The question, recorded by Francesco della Valle, sounded as follows: "Sti rominest?" (In modern Romanian: "Știi românește"; translation: "Do you know Romanian?").¹³

III. When was the first text written in Romanian?

Most philologists consider that writing in Romanian is older than Neacșu's Letter from 1521, which is written in a clear, fluent language, by no means clumsy as we would expect from a language in transition from exclusively oral to written transmission. Therefore, more recent research has focused on analyzing the Hurmuzaki Psalter, which is believed to be the oldest text written in Romanian, although the date of the manuscript's composition remains unknown, with some experts estimating it was written sometime between 1491 and 1516.¹⁴

Therefore, the first text in Romanian that has been preserved to this day and can be precisely dated remains Neacșu's Letter from 1521, through which the merchant Neacșu from Câmpulung (Muscel) warned Johannes Benkner, the judge of Brașov, about a Turkish invasion being prepared south of the Danube.¹⁵

By way of comparison, we cannot fail to mention that in the same period as Neacșu's Letter, the first text in another Romance language is also attested: Romansh.¹⁶

The letter was written in Romanian, using the Cyrillic alphabet, with the exception of the greeting and closing formulas which were written in Slavonic. Of course, the Cyrillic alphabet could not render certain sounds specific to the Romanian language, but the text remains relatively easy to understand, despite some archaic features. Adapting the Cyrillic alphabet to the requirements of the phonetics of a Latin language was difficult to achieve. It should be emphasized that like the current Romanian language, the overwhelming majority of words in the letter are of Latin origin. According to specialists, the Latin foundation of the text represents no less than 92%.¹⁷

Neacșu's Letter is also remarkable from another point of view: it offers us the first native testimony about how the inhabitants of Wallachia called their own country: Țeara Rumânească (The Romanian Land).

Why Țeara Rumânească?

It depends on whom we ask: according to the same pseudoscientific theory, the name was invented in the 1800s; however, according to hundreds of documents from the 16th-19th centuries, the formula Țeara Rumânească/Țara Românească was commonly used in popular language as an alternative name for Wallachia.

Are Romanians a unique case of preserving the Romance ethnonym?

The preservation of the Romance ethnonym precisely among the so-called Vlachs seems at first glance hard to believe, in the context where it has disappeared among many Romance peoples (French, Spanish, Italians). However, a more careful analysis demonstrates that it is by no means a singular case, but rather we are dealing with a convergent evolution: Romance populations from two regions at great distance (the Swiss Alps and the Carpathians) independently developed similar identities based on Roman heritage as a response to similar environmental pressures (geographic isolation, the danger of assimilation).

Just like the Rumâni/Români, called Vlachs by the Slavs and Walachen by the Germans, the Latin speakers of Switzerland have called themselves Romands and Rumansh/Romansh for centuries, even though the Germans called them Walch or wälsch.²¹ Moreover, the French-speaking region of Western Switzerland was called, in medieval times, "pays romands" (meaning "the land of the Romands")²² or "Romania"²³ or "Romagne",²⁴ and the homeland of the Rumansh is called "teara rumàntscha" in the Sutsilvan dialect of the Romansh language.²⁵

IV. Since when has Romanian been written with Latin letters?

Photo 3. The Todorescu Fragment, the first Romanian text with Latin script (1570-73)

 As we have already seen, the first texts in the Romanian language with Cyrillic letters date from the 16th century, but it is less known that the Romanian language was written with the Latin alphabet from the same century. The first writing of this kind that has been preserved to this day is the so-called Todorescu Fragment (Photo 3), a text consisting of four pages, apparently printed at the order of the Calvinist Romanians from the Banat-Hunedoara region, sometime between 1570-1573.²⁶ At the end of the century, in 1594, the first version of the Lord's Prayer written with the Latin alphabet appears in a work printed in Poland.²⁷

In the 17th century, we witness a significant increase in the number of Romanian works written with Latin characters. Among the most notable works from this period are Mihail Halici's Psalms from 1640,²⁸ Gergely Sandor of Hațeg's Book of Songs from 1642, or Ștefan Fogarasi's Catechism from 1648.²⁹ To these are added two extremely important lexicographic works: Dictionarium valachico-latinum,³⁰ the first original bilingual lexicon in Romanian writing, and Lexicon Marsilianum,³¹ a trilingual Latin-Romanian-Hungarian dictionary.

The simultaneous existence of several Romanian texts, written with both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets, allows us to analyze the differences between the Romanian language from four or five centuries ago and that of our times, and the most accessible specimen for this comparison is the Lord's Prayer itself.

V. "Our Father" from the 16th century vs. "Our Father" from today

The Lord's Prayer is among the first texts written in European languages, being translated into vernacular even before the Bible. In the case of the Romanian language, the first written version dates from the second half of the 16th century, although it is very likely that it was also included in two other texts from the first half of the century, of which no copies have been preserved: the Gospel Book of 1532 and the Catechism of 1544. In total, ten Romanian versions of the prayer are known from the 16th century, the most important being those from the Gospel Book of Sibiu (1551-1553), Coresi's Catechism (1560), Coresi's Tetraevangelion (1561), and the version attributed to Luca Stroici (1594).

To answer our question about the Latinity or lack of Latinity of the old Romanian language, we made an intertextual comparison between the versions of the Lord's Prayer from the 16th century and the modern variant.

The Slavonic-Romanian Gospel Book of Sibiu (1551-1553)³²

Tată nostrь čine eşti în čer svinţească-se Numele Teu,

šâ se vie împaraţia Ta šâ se fie voia Ta, 

cum în čer aşa šâ pre pomânt. 

Pita noastră saţioasa dă-ne astăzь 

šâ ne iartă noo datoriele noastre cum iartăm šâ noi datornicilor noštri. 

Şâ nu ne du în ispită, însă izbaveaşte-ne de reu. Amin!

Coresi's Catechism (1560)³³

Tatăl nostru, ce eşti în ceri, sfinţească-se numele tău, 

să vie împărăţie ta; fie voia ta, cum în ceri aşa şi pre pământ. 

Pita noastră săţioasă dă-ne noao astăzi,

şi iartă noao greşalele noastre, cum iertăm şi noi greşiţilor noştri; 

şi nu ne duce în năpaste, ce ne isbăveaşte pre noi de hitleanul. Amin!

Coresi's Tetraevangelion (1561)³⁴

Tatăl nostru, ce eşti în ceriure, sfinţească-se numele tău, 

să vie împărăţia ta, fie voia ta, cum în ceri aşa şi pre pământ. 

Pâinea noastră săţioasă dă-ne noao astăzi,

şi iartă noao greşalele noastre, cum iertăm şi noi greşiţilor noştri,

şi nu ne duce în năpaste, ce ne izbăveaşte pre noi de hitleanul. Amin!

Luca Stroici Version (1594)³⁵

Părintele nostru ce iesti in ceriu, swinçaskese numele teu,

se vie inpereçia ta, se fie voia ta, komu ie in ceru assa ssi pre pemintu.

Penia noastre seçioase de noai astedei, ssi iarte noae detoriile noastre, cum ssi noi lesem detorniczitor [sic!] nosstri.

Ssi nu aducze pre noi in ispite ce no mentuiaste de fitlanul. Amin!

Modern Version

Tatăl nostru Care ești în ceruri, sfințească-se numele Tău, 

vie împărăția Ta, fie voia Ta, precum în cer așa și pe pământ. 

Pâinea noastră cea de toate zilele dă-ne-o nouă astăzi

și ne iartă nouă greșelile noastre, precum și noi iertăm greșiților noștri. 

Și nu ne duce pe noi în ispită, ci ne izbăvește de cel rău. Amin!

The analysis of the vocabulary of the "Our Father" prayer offers us a unique window into the evolution of the Romanian language over the last five centuries. From a lexical point of view,³⁶ the situation is as follows:

- Gospel Book of Sibiu: 56 words – four of Slavic origin and 52 of Latin origin;

- Coresi's Catechism: 55 words – three Slavic, one Hungarian and 48 Latin;

- Luca Stroici Version: 55 words – three Slavic, two Hungarian and 50 Latin;

- Modern version: 60 words - six Slavic and 54 Latin

Conclusions

A simple comparison shows us that, from a lexical and grammatical point of view, the Lord's Prayer has remained relatively unchanged in the last five centuries, nothing like the radical differences we would have expected if the Romanian language before the 19th century were truly fundamentally different from the current one.

The consistency of vocabulary and grammatical constructions over this extended period indicates rather a gradual evolution than a comprehensive restructuring of the Romanian language in the modern period.

Many of the orthographic differences are caused by the use of inadequate alphabets and orthographic systems to render certain sounds specific to the Romanian language.

Just as was the case with many other European languages, during the 19th century, the Romanian idiom went through a process of standardization and modernization of the language, borrowing massively from Italian and, especially, from French, but some linguists have urged caution regarding the evaluation of the importance of the French element in the structure of the Romanian language.³⁷

Most borrowings consist of technical terms from fields such as industry, engineering, government or medicine, necessary for the modernization of society. Neologisms from French replaced in many cases neologisms borrowed, in the Phanariot era, from Turkish, Neo-Greek, Russian, since, as literary historian Pompiliu Eliade remarked, "the 18th century had had an influence just as harmful on the literary language as on the development of the Romanian public spirit. The vocabulary, as well as the syntax, had become corrupted, making the language unrecognizable. Many of the old appropriate, plastic, even Latin words had been forgotten and were clumsily replaced by Greek, Turkish, Russian words".³⁸

Therefore, there was no transformation of the Romanian language from a Slavic one into a Romance one, as many still absurdly believe. The fundamental structure of the language remained the same as it had always been, as attested by old documents written in Romanian. It is the same language, only its vocabulary has been enriched and adapted to the modern needs of society. The process represented a natural evolution, not a rupture or a radical change of linguistic identity.

 

Footnotes

1 The first Romanian text written in Cyrillic is the "Neacșu Letter" from 1521, while the oldest Romanian text written in Latin characters is the "Todorescu Fragment", dated between 1570 and 1573

2 The Lithuanians preferred to use the so-called Chancellery Slavonic, a variant of the Ruthenian language, because until the 16th century there was no written Lithuanian language, while Slavonic was used in the administration and church since the Kievan Rus' period. The oldest writings in Lithuanian are some hymns and prayers included in a Latin work – Tractatus sacerdotalis – published in 1503. Tamošaitis, Kulakauskas, Eidintas 2013, p. 68-71; Schmalstieg 1982; Hrusha 2017; Dubonis 2016.

3 "Norman Conquest" in Encyclopaedia Britannica; UK Parliament, The Making of Magna Carta; Poppelaars, 2023

4 Hasdeu 1864, p. 2.

5 For more information about Romanian words attested before the systematic written recording of the Romanian language, see the studies signed by Lucia Djamo-Diaconiţă 1963, 1971; Hasdeu 1864; Gheție 2000; Burci 2015, p. 307-308, Damian 1946; Halichias 2010; Bolocan 1981; Mihăilă 1974; Apetrei 2004; Knoll 2018;  Deaconu 2016, p.  53-56.

6 In the act concerning a landplot in Banat, the name of the location is mentioned both in Hungarian and Romanian: „unum locum Teglauar vocatum, vulgariter, secundum vero Olachos, Charamada vocatum”. Ivanciuc 2022, p. 104  

7 Maternus, the bishop of Transylvania, asked the city of Sibiu to send the lord of Wallachia a skilled envoy who would be "connoisseur of the Olah idiom" („idiomate Olachali suffultum”). Hurmuzachi & Iorga 1911, p. 6; Panaitescu 1965, p. 62-64; Ivanciuc 2022, p. 104 

8 In the decree concering some villages from Maramures county it is mentioned that "the mountain which in Hungarian is called Musdal peak, and in Romanian Gocon peak" is mentioned ("unum locum Teglauar vocatum, vulgariter, secundum vero Olachos, Charamada vocatum"). Ivanciuc 2022, p. 104 

9 Around 1420, the Serbian writer Constantin Kostențchi, nicknamed "The Philosopher", in his Cyrillic spelling manual, regarding the letter "ѣ" (iati), mentions that "in Romanian, bea is spelled with ea and not with e". Ivanciuc 2022, p. 104. Panaitescu 1965, p. 62-64

10 On the Latin copy of the treaty between Stephen the Great and the Polish king Casimir IV there is the following note: "Haec inscripcio ex Valachico in latinum versa est, sed rex Ruthenian lingua scriptam accepta". (This act was translated from Romanian into Latin, and the king received the copy written in Slavonic"). A confusion between Romanian and Slavonic is also not possible because the author of the note makes a clear distinction between the two languages: Valachico, respectively Ruthenian lingua. Ivanciuc 2022, p. 104; Panaitescu 1965, p. 62-64  

11 Bracolini also mentions that a number of Romanian words come from Latin terms, such as "Oculum" ("eye" in Romanian), "digitum" ("finger" in Romanian), "manum" ("hand" in Romanian), "panem" ("bread" in Romanian). For clarity, here is Bracciolini's testimony, in Latin: "Apud superiores Sarmatas colonia est ab Traiano ut aiunt derelicta, quae nunc etiam inter tantam barbariem multa retinet latina vocabula, ab Italis, qui eo profecti sunt, notata. Oculum dicunt, digitum, manum, panem, multaque alia quibus apparet a Latinis, qui coloni ibidem relicti fuerunt, manasse eamque coloniam fuisse latino sermone usam". Damian 2023, p. 108; Armbruster 1993, p. 55-56 

12 Armbruster 1993, p. 51-66; Daicoviciu 1968; Damian 2023; Maiden 2010, p. 31; Metzeltin 2017; Renzi 2000; Ricci 2025; 

13 Francesco della Valle (1534): "La lingua loro e poco diversa dalla nostra Italiana, si dimandano in lingua loro Romei perche dicono esser venuti anticamente da Roma ad habitar in quel paese, et se alcuno dimanda se sanno parlare in la lor lingua valacca, dicono a questo modo: Sti Rominest? che vol dire: Sai tu Romano, per esser corrotta la lingua...". Armbruster 1993, p. 90 

14 Mareș 2000; Camară 2003; Gheție et ali 1982, p. 147- 181

15 Dima 2021; Oameni, locuri și evenimente menționate în scrisoare, în: CIMEC, Scrisoarea lui Neacșu, apud. Rotaru 1981

16 Apart from a few scattered attestations from the 10th and 11th centuries, the first written documents in Rumansh date from the first quarter of the 16th century. The oldest complete text in Rumansh is a penal code entitled "Stattütt e trastütt da queus d'Engadinna d'suott", issued in 1519 based on a version from 1508 (now lost). Decurtins 2019, p. 54; Gross 2004, p. 71-72;  Lingua rumantscha in: Lexicon Istoric Rhetic (LIR). The first translation of the Bible into Romansh was published in 1560, under the title L'g Nuof Sainc Testamaint da nos Signer Jesu Christi: Prais our delg Latin & our d'oters launguax & huossa da noef mis in Arumaunsch, de către Jachiam Bifrun d'Agnedina. Bifrun 1560.  

17 Limba română în timpul lui Neacșu, în:  CIMEC, Scrisoarea lui Neacșu, apud. Rotaru 1981

18 Pop 2013

19 Hächler 2021, p. 263–280; Liccardo 2019

20 Kaldellis 2019, p. 85-90; Wolff 1948, p. 2-13

21 Chur-wälsch. Elcock 1957, p. 271, 479; Walch = Welsche. Rash 2002, p. 122

22 The name "Pays romands" was used in French since the Middle Ages to designate the lands inhabited by the Romansh, corresponding to the term Welschland in German.Spadaro 2022, p. 14. 

23 Într-un document din anul 1290 se menționează "Romania diocese Lausannensis", cu referire la partea romandă a diocezei de Lausanne. Borradori 1992, p. 114, 155; Paravicini & Felber & Morerod & Pasche 1997, p. 119. Termenul "Romagne" apare uneori ca sinonim cu "pays romands", în special în secolul al XVI-lea. Les mandements et ordonnances chrétiennes în: Collection des sources du droit suisse (SDS), Vd C I, p. 205; Archives cantonales vaudoises, Ba 33/F Décrets romands; Tappy 2010, p. 58-59

24 Gion Mani 1957, p. 9. RTR, Haus und Garten; Decurtins 1888, p. 762

25 Ercolani 1961, p. 352; Lepri&Vitali 2009, p. 352; Berti 1872, p. 271; Ross&Honess 2015, p. 69; Zaffagnini 2025

26 Gheţie 1982; Cartojan 1940, p. 58-60

27 Niculescu 2006, p. 57-61; Cămară 2020, p. 58-60

28 Drăganu 1924

29 Moldovanu 1997, Gherman 2014

30 Chivu 2021

31 Nagy 2000 

32 Niculescu 2006, p. 49-51; Cămară 2020, p. 53-55

33 Niculescu 2006, p. 51-52; Cămară 2020, p. 55

34 Niculescu 2006, p. 52-53; Cămară 2020, p. 56-58 

35 Niculescu 2006, p. 57-61; Cămară 2020, p. 58-60

36 Cămară 2020, p. 112

37 Damian 2020; Gömöri&Klaniczay,&Sinor 2019

38 Felea 2022, p. 12-13; Deaconu 2016 p. 53-54, Apetrei 2004, p. 192-195

39 Deaconu 2016 p. 57-68

40 Mitrofan 2014

41 idem

 

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